A systematic review of epinephrine stability and sterility with storage in a syringe - Allergy, Asthma & Clinical Immunology

The incidence of allergies and anaphylaxis continues to increase worldwide, especially among children [33]. Epinephrine is a critical life-saving therapy for anaphylaxis and must be readily available to those at risk in order to reduce morbidity and mortality [1]. EAIs are the preferred administration method for epinephrine due to their relative ease of use and proven stability [1, 34]. EAIs contain epinephrine in a sealed container that protects the drug from exposure to oxygen and light, allowing the epinephrine to remain pharmacologically stable for at least 1 year after the device is produced. Some studies have indicated that epinephrine stored in EAIs may remain stable and clinically usable for much longer than 1 year, although results vary by device and between studies [35,36,37]. Auto-injector devices reduce errors by eliminating some of the variables of administering the drug, such as determining the correct dose [12, 38]. The EAI user does not have to see the needle prior to use, or be experienced in how to self-administer a medication using a needle and syringe, potentially reducing barriers to use [39].

The prospect of administering epinephrine safely without an EAI raises concerns among doctors and patient advocates, who believe it is more complicated to administer the correct dose safely using a syringe and needle [5]. However, patients and providers have had to consider this alternative in many parts of the world where EAIs are unavailable or cost-prohibitive. As of 2007, auto-injectors containing 0.3 mg of epinephrine were officially available in only 39 countries worldwide (20% of the 195 countries) [3]. EAIs with doses appropriate for infants were not available in any country at that time, although a 0.1 mg EAI with a shorter needle was recently marketed in the United States [40]. Even in areas where auto-injectors are distributed, they may not be accessible to all patients at risk of anaphylaxis. EAIs are potentially cost-prohibitive, particularly in the United States, where escalating EAI costs, rising insurance deductibles for many patients, and varying coverage of EAIs makes for a complicated system for consumers to navigate successfully [41]. The use of a syringe and needle to deliver epinephrine is an inexpensive alternative in these cases [7] and also allows for customizable doses and needle lengths, which may benefit patients for whom the standard needle length of an auto-injector is too short (resulting in subcutaneous injection) or too long (resulting in injection into bone) [42]. However, a patient or caregiver may be unable to quickly and correctly draw up a dose of epinephrine during the stress and time constraints of an anaphylactic reaction [12, 43].

Prefilled syringes can be prepared in advance, either in clinic or in a pharmacy, for the patient to take home. Transferring epinephrine from an ampule or vial into the syringe potentially exposes the epinephrine to oxygen, which could accelerate degradation. The medication also potentially risks contamination during transfer. Although evidence is limited, the results of this systematic review suggest that epinephrine prefilled syringes, in concentrations typically used in anaphylaxis, appear to be a viable alternative to EAIs. Under recommended storage conditions, 1 mg/mL epinephrine is stable in a syringe for at least 3 months [24] and 0.7 mg/mL epinephrine is stable in a syringe for at least 8 weeks [22]. An additional study by Rawas-Qalaji et al., excluded from this review based on prolonged high heat exposure, showed similar stability of epinephrine. In this study, syringes containing 1 mg/mL epinephrine and stored at 38 °C still delivered at least 90% of the label dose after 2 months of storage in low humidity or 3 months in high humidity [25]. These results are especially notable because high storage temperatures are expected to accelerate degradation of epinephrine compared to room temperature storage [44].

Donnelly’s study was the only one which compared the stability between two different concentrations of epinephrine stored in prefilled syringes [22]. This study found that 0.7 mg/mL epinephrine remained stable for the full 8 weeks of the study, while 0.1 mg/mL epinephrine showed clinically significant degradation by 14 days. These results suggest that higher concentrations of epinephrine are more stable in syringes over time. The stability of 1 mg/mL epinephrine in Kerddonfak’s study further supports this idea [24]. However, another study did not find any clinically significant degradation of 0.1 mg/mL epinephrine in prefilled syringes over 24 weeks [11], indicating that different storage conditions may have an impact on stability of epinephrine regardless of concentration.

Each study stored the epinephrine-filled syringes in a slightly different way, which may have contributed to the variation seen in the results. In Donnelly’s study, in which the 0.1 mg/mL epinephrine samples demonstrated significant degradation past 7 days of storage, capped needles were attached to the epinephrine prefilled syringes during storage. The needle allowed air exposure during storage that may have contributed to the degradation of epinephrine seen in this study [22]. In Zenoni’s study, which also tested 0.1 mg/mL epinephrine, the syringes were stored without needles attached, sealed with a plastic cap, and kept inside a sealed, light-proof plastic container. In this study, no significant degradation of epinephrine was detected over 24 weeks of storage [11]. This more rigorous storage process may have reduced air exposure and minimized the impacts of light, moisture, and oxygen on the degradation of epinephrine.

Zenoni additionally compared storage of 0.1 mg/mL epinephrine at room temperature to storage in a refrigerator (2–8 °C) [11]. Storing epinephrine prefilled syringes at 2–8 °C resulted in significantly higher concentrations of epinephrine compared to the syringes stored at room temperature over the course of the 24-week study, although neither group showed clinically significant degradation (epinephrine concentration below 90%) by 24 weeks. Although epinephrine is recommended for storage at room temperature in the United States, studies on epinephrine stored in cold temperatures, including freezing, have found no significant degradation, even up to a full year of storage [44].

Neither of the two studies testing for bacterial growth [11, 24] nor the one study testing for fungal growth [24] identified any contamination. In addition, another study demonstrated that prefilled syringes containing 1 mg/mL epinephrine remained sterile after storage in contaminated soil, whereas epinephrine ampules, needles, and syringes stored separately in the same contaminated soil before combining them for use resulted in contamination of six out of 10 solutions [45]. Prefilled syringes may offer a more sterile solution in the community than providing an ampule, needle, and syringe. However, the testing performed in these studies was on a very limited number of samples (Table 3) and only up to 3 months of storage, and therefore cannot be extrapolated to the long-term sterility of all epinephrine syringes. Any prefilled syringes distributed to patients or used in the hospital setting would need to be properly tested for sterility as would be expected for a commercial product distributed under national guidelines.

The idea of using prefilled syringes to treat anaphylaxis is not new: a paper published in 1975 describes kits containing antihistamine tablets and a preloaded syringe of epinephrine available by prescription [46]. While an epinephrine prefilled syringe was recently approved by the United States Food and Drug Administration and brought to market in clinical settings [47], general inaccessibility of affordable epinephrine devices has led to “off-label” use of epinephrine prefilled syringes in many allergists’ offices of the United States (personal communication), and in community and hospital environments around the world. In countries where diluted (0.1 mg/mL) solutions of epinephrine are unavailable, stock epinephrine may be routinely diluted and stored in syringes as ready-to-use preparations in the hospital setting [11]. While there are United States Pharmacopeia standards for compounded medications allowing only 1–3 days of storage (depending on conditions) after compounding [48, 49], we are unaware of any industry standards specific to drawing up epinephrine or other medications without compounding or dilution, and intended for intramuscular use. There have been reports of infections associated with medications stored in syringes and then delivered intravenously [50], but we are unaware of any infections associated with intramuscular use of syringes. There has, however, been one reported Clostridial infection following an EpiPen injection in a thigh [14], suggesting that this potential exists.

Prefilled syringes are inexpensive and allow the provider to tailor the dose and needle length to meet the patient’s needs. However, prefilled syringes might be most valuable in pre-hospital and hospital settings, where the high costs of EAIs has resulted in increased use of epinephrine in syringes, most commonly drawn up from ampules or vials at the time of use [9, 10, 51]. Epinephrine prefilled syringes may be a better alternative to drawing up epinephrine at the time of need, as drawing up doses using an ampule and syringe under time pressure is prone to errors even among medical professionals [12]. Thus, stocking prefilled syringes in the medical setting, ideally with a range of weight-based doses, might minimize errors and potentially reduce the time taken to get epinephrine to a patient experiencing anaphylaxis. Storing resuscitation medications in color-coded prefilled syringes has been shown to reduce administration time and errors among emergency medical professionals [52].

To date, there is no definitive evidence to suggest how long 1 mg/mL epinephrine prefilled syringes are stable or sterile, as the current research has only indicated stability and sterility for up to 3 months. This potentially limited time to expiration may be problematic particularly in the community setting, where patients might not reliably change out their medication on time. Prefilled syringes also require protection from light exposure and must be stored in a container that prevents the syringe plunger from being unintentionally depressed prior to use, limitations that must be addressed before prefilled syringes can be a feasible storage mechanism for ready-to-use epinephrine.

Limitations of the research

In order to find every potential study, we did not limit the results of the literature search to English. We used Google Translate to translate the six non-English studies found in the search. We did not verify that our translations were correct with someone fluent in each language, so we may have missed pertinent information from these six studies. However, we do not believe that this is probable, given that none of these studies appeared relevant or remotely likely to be eligible for inclusion in this review.

In one study, mean storage room temperatures measured between 8 and 9 a.m. were 26 ± 3 °C [24]. Daily temperatures could have exceeded recommended room temperature ranges (20–25 °C, with excursions allowed up to 30 °C but a 24-h mean of no more than 25 °C) [14,15,16,17,18,19,20,21]. Since no 24-h mean temperature was provided in the study or was available after personal communication with the author, we decided that we did not have sufficient evidence that the mean daily temperatures exceeded those allowed under manufacturer recommended storage temperatures, and concluded that this study was eligible for inclusion. Fortunately, the possible heat exposure in this study does not appear to have impacted study conclusions. If the epinephrine had been exposed to excessive heat during the study, it would have been expected to cause increased degradation of epinephrine, which was not seen.

All three of the authors we attempted to contact replied (Benjaponpitak, Invernizzi, Donnelly), and two (Invernizzi and Donnelly) were able to provide additional information. However, no study was excluded based on lack of information.

Only three studies were eligible for this systematic review, and only one eligible study tested epinephrine at the 1 mg/mL concentration that would be appropriate in an epinephrine prefilled syringe for use in anaphylaxis [24]. Only a small range of different syringe brands were tested; results could vary by syringe type and storage conditions. Only two studies tested samples for bacterial contamination and one for fungal contamination. One of these studies tested 12 syringes total [24] and the other tested 6 syringes total [11]. These small sample sizes may have been insufficient to detect rare contamination events. Therefore, the implications of this systematic review are limited due to the small number of relevant studies.